Social Isolation and Loneliness

Although they are related, social isolation and loneliness have different meanings. Social isolation refers to a lack of social contacts or interactions, characterized by a small network of social and kinship relationships, and/or a low frequency of contacts (de Jong-Gierveld et al., 2018; Sandu et al., 2021). Loneliness is a subjective feeling that arises when there is a perceived discrepancy between the desired and actual quality or quantity of social connections. Unlike social isolation, loneliness is not always tied to the physical presence of others but rather to the emotional need for companionship (de Jong-Gierveld et al., 2018; Perlman & Peplau, 1981; Sandu et al., 2021). As a result, chronic loneliness has been associated with numerous adverse health effects, such as depression, anxiety, cardiovascular issues, and weakened immune system functionality (Fakoya et al., 2020).

Loneliness and isolation manifest differently for each person, often influenced by personal, community, or societal circumstances (Sandu et al., 2021). Individual factors that increase loneliness include the marital status (being single, divorced, or widowed); lacking family or close relationships; living alone; or experiencing caregiving or significant life transitions. Additional risks are linked to migration, minority status, low education or income, traumatic events (e.g., abuse, imprisonment, homelessness), and health issues such as dementia, disability, or impaired mobility (Cohen-Mansfield et al., 2016; Hansen & Slagsvold, 2015).

Community factors contributing to isolation include limited social infrastructure, transportation challenges, and unsafe or deprived neighbourhoods. Older adults in rural areas with impairments or in high-cost urban settings face heightened risks, as do those lacking access to jobs, communication technologies, or the internet (Cohen-Mansfield et al., 2016; Victor et al., 2012). Finally, the socio-economic and cultural context shapes loneliness, with material deprivation and low income limiting social interaction and participation. Welfare systems, including pension policies, directly impact older adults’ ability to engage in society and reduce isolation (Jivraj et al., 2012).

A recent study supports this finding, revealing that women, widowed or single individuals, those living in institutions, and people residing in rural areas are more prone to experiencing loneliness (Susanty et al., 2025).