Ageism is a complex social phenomenon that encompasses stereotypes (thoughts), prejudices (feelings), and discrimination (actions or behaviours) directed at others or oneself based on age. It emerges when age is used as a basis to categorize and divide people, often leading to harm, disadvantage, and injustice. This process undermines intergenerational solidarity and creates barriers to equity (WHO, 2021b). However, to focus now specifically on ageism directed toward older adults.

Ageism manifests on three interconnected levels: structural or institutional, interpersonal, and self-directed. Institutional ageism refers to the systemic embedding of age-based discrimination within laws, policies, rules, and social norms. These frameworks often disadvantage individuals based on their age, whether intentionally or not (WHO, 2021b). Structural ageism manifests in various ways across societal systems. In the workforce, mandatory retirement ages and age discrimination in hiring often force older adults out prematurely, severing social connections and limiting intergenerational engagement (Ayalon & Tesch-Römer, 2018). Housing policies and urban planning can also reflect ageist structures, such as age-segregated housing, which may isolate older adults from community life, or public spaces designed without their needs in mind, such as insufficient seating or poor lighting (Buffel et al., 2012a). Healthcare systems contribute to ageism as well, with ageist attitudes among providers potentially leading to inadequate care, reinforcing stereotypes, and discouraging older adults from social participation (Levy, 2009). Additionally, media representation plays a role, as the underrepresentation or misrepresentation of older adults perpetuates negative stereotypes and shapes societal perceptions and interactions with this group (Loos & Ivan, 2018).

Such practices often go unrecognized because they are deeply ingrained and normalized within society, supported by longstanding institutional ideologies. This type of ageism legitimizes the exclusion of certain age groups from power, influence, and opportunities, reinforcing inequitable power dynamics rooted in age-based assumptions (WHO, 2021b).

Interpersonal ageism, on the other hand, occurs during interactions between individuals. It includes behaviours that disrespect or marginalize someone due to their age. For instance, older adults may be ignored in discussions or decision-making processes, while patronizing language such as “elderspeak” assumes incompetence and infantilizes them, diminishing their self-esteem (Williams et al., 2009). These interpersonal behaviours not only harm individual relationships but also perpetuate societal ageism by normalizing discriminatory attitudes in everyday interactions (WHO, 2021b).

Self-directed ageism is another dimension where individuals internalize societal age-based biases and apply them to themselves. This often happens after repeated exposure to cultural stereotypes that shape self-perceptions and limit aspirations (Levy, 2003). For example, older adults might believe they are too old to learn new skills or take up hobbies, leading to diminished self-confidence and reduced participation in society.

These three levels of ageism – structural/institutional, interpersonal, and self-directed – are deeply interconnected and mutually reinforcing. Institutional policies can normalize interpersonal biases, which individuals may then internalize, creating a cycle of discrimination that persists across generations (WHO, 2021b). This also influences social relationships and the way we approach forming new interactions with others. Ageism is assumed to be an inhibitor factor to social participation, which in turns leads to a lack of social contact and interaction with others and the way an older adult may look for creating new relationships (Park & Chang, 2024). Especially self-directed ageism can create uncertainties in own self-efficacy and jeopardize endeavours in new opportunities and challenges in life, being present in beliefs such as «I’m too old to make new friends» (Henry et al., 2023).